Search for: All records

Plant cells accumulate small RNA molecules that regulate plant development, genome stability, and environmental responses. These small RNAs fall into three major classes based on their function and mechanisms of biogenesis—microRNAs, heterochromatic small interfering RNAs, and secondary small interfering RNAs—plus several other less well-characterized categories. Biogenesis of each small RNA class requires a pathway of factors, some specific to each pathway and others involved in multiple pathways. Diverse sequenced plant genomes, along with rapid developments in sequencing, imaging, and genetic transformation techniques, have enabled significant progress in understanding the biogenesis, functions, and evolution of plant small RNAs, including those that had been poorly characterized because they were absent or had low representation in Arabidopsis ( Arabidopsis thaliana). Here, we review recent findings about plant small RNAs and discuss our current understanding of their biogenesis mechanisms, targets, modes of action, mobility, and functions in Arabidopsis and other plant species, including economically important crops. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Plant Biology, Volume 74 is May 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates. 

NAKED ENDOSPERM1 (NKD1), NKD2, and OPAQUE2 (O2) are transcription factors important for cell patterning and nutrient storage in maize (Zea mays) endosperm. To study the complex regulatory interrelationships among these 3 factors in coregulating gene networks, we developed a set of nkd1, nkd2, and o2 homozygous lines, including all combinations of mutant and wild-type genes. Among the 8 genotypes tested, we observed diverse phenotypes and gene interactions affecting cell patterning, starch content, and storage proteins. From ∼8 to ∼16 d after pollination, maize endosperm undergoes a transition from cellular development to nutrient accumulation for grain filling. Gene network analysis showed that NKD1, NKD2, and O2 dynamically regulate a hierarchical gene network during this period, directing cellular development early and then transitioning to constrain cellular development while promoting the biosynthesis and storage of starch, proteins, and lipids. Genetic interactions regulating this network are also dynamic. The assay for transposase-accessible chromatin using sequencing (ATAC-seq) showed that O2 influences the global regulatory landscape, decreasing NKD1 and NKD2 target site accessibility, while NKD1 and NKD2 increase O2 target site accessibility. In summary, interactions of NKD1, NKD2, and O2 dynamically affect the hierarchical gene network and regulatory landscape during the transition from cellular development to grain filling in maize endosperm.

 

Several protein families participate in the biogenesis and function of small RNAs (sRNAs) in plants. Those with primary roles include Dicer-like (DCL), RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDR), and Argonaute (AGO) proteins. Protein families such as double-stranded RNA-binding (DRB), SERRATE (SE), and SUPPRESSION OF SILENCING 3 (SGS3) act as partners of DCL or RDR proteins. Here, we present curated annotations and phylogenetic analyses of seven sRNA pathway protein families performed on 196 species in the Viridiplantae (aka green plants) lineage. Our results suggest that the RDR3 proteins emerged earlier than RDR1/2/6. RDR6 is found in filamentous green algae and all land plants, suggesting that the evolution of RDR6 proteins coincides with the evolution of phased small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). We traced the origin of the 24-nt reproductive phased siRNA-associated DCL5 protein back to the American sweet flag (Acorus americanus), the earliest diverged, extant monocot species. Our analyses of AGOs identified multiple duplication events of AGO genes that were lost, retained, or further duplicated in subgroups, indicating that the evolution of AGOs is complex in monocots. The results also refine the evolution of several clades of AGO proteins, such as AGO4, AGO6, AGO17, and AGO18. Analyses of nuclear localization signal sequences and catalytic triads of AGO proteins shed light on the regulatory roles of diverse AGOs. Collectively, this work generates a curated and evolutionarily coherent annotation for gene families involved in plant sRNA biogenesis/function and provides insights into the evolution of major sRNA pathways.

 

Plant small RNAs are important regulatory elements that fine-tune gene expression and maintain genome integrity by silencing transposons. Reproductive organs of monocots produce abundant phased, small interfering RNAs (phasiRNAs). The 21-nt reproductive phasiRNAs triggered by miR2118 are highly enriched in pre-meiotic anthers, and have been found in multiple eudicot species, in contrast with prior reports of monocot specificity. The 24-nt reproductive phasiRNAs are triggered by miR2275, and are highly enriched during meiosis in many angiosperms. Here, we report the widespread presence of the 21-nt reproductive phasiRNA pathway in eudicots including canonical and non-canonical microRNA (miRNA) triggers of this pathway. In eudicots, these 21-nt phasiRNAs are enriched in pre-meiotic stages, a spatiotemporal distribution consistent with that of monocots and suggesting a role in anther development. Although this pathway is apparently absent in well-studied eudicot families including the Brassicaceae, Solanaceae and Fabaceae, our work in eudicots supports an earlier singular finding in spruce, a gymnosperm, indicating that the pathway of 21-nt reproductive phasiRNAs emerged in seed plants and was lost in some lineages.

 

The anther‐enriched phased, small interfering RNAs (phasiRNAs) play vital roles in sustaining male fertility in grass species. Their long non‐coding precursors are synthesized by RNA polymerase II and are likely regulated by transcription factors (TFs). A few putative transcriptional regulators of the 21‐ or 24‐nucleotide phasiRNA loci (referred to as21‐or24‐PHASloci) have been identified in maize (Zea mays), but whether any of the individual TFs or TF combinations suffice to activate anyPHASlocus is unclear. Here, we identified the temporal gene coexpression networks (modules) associated with maize anther development, including two modules highly enriched for the21‐or24‐PHASloci. Comparisons of these coexpression modules and gene sets dysregulated in several reported male sterile TF mutants provided insights into TF timing with regard to phasiRNA biogenesis, including antagonistic roles for OUTER CELL LAYER4 and MALE STERILE23.Trans‐activation assays in maize protoplasts of individual TFs using bulk‐protoplast RNA‐sequencing showed that two of the TFs coexpressed with21‐PHASloci could activate several 21‐nucleotide phasiRNA pathway genes but not transcription of21‐PHASloci. Screens for combinatorial activities of these TFs and, separately, the recently reported putative transcriptional regulators of24‐PHASloci using single‐cell (protoplast) RNA‐sequencing, did not detect reproducible activation of either21‐PHASor24‐PHASloci. Collectively, our results suggest that the endogenous transcriptional machineries and/or chromatin states in the anthers are necessary to activate reproductivePHASloci.